Social Learning Theory (one of the communication theories) Assignment

Social Learning Theory (one of the communication theories) - Assignment Example For instance, when the behaviour model displayed violent words and actions towards the Bobo doll, the children did the same. The method involved 36 boys and 36 girls. The children were from 3 to 6 years of age. The first group of participants (24 boys and girls) were made to observe a model who exhibited aggressive actions and words towards the Bobo doll. Meanwhile, the second group of the same population were made to watch a non-aggressive model. Finally, the last group was treated as the control batch and had no exposure to any models. The conclusions indicated that the children who were made to observe an aggressive model tended to exhibit more similarly violent behaviors. Interestingly, gender had a significant influence. If the role model was male, the girls showed more physical aggression. On the other hand, if the role model was female, the girls displayed more verbal hostility. However, there is no significant difference between girls’ and boys’ levels of verbal aggression. In addition, boys emulated role models of the same sex more as compared to girls. Bandura furthered that observational learning involves a live, verbal, or symbolic models. This means that exemplars may be live people or animals, auditory directions, or characters that may be seen in different kinds of media such as movies and books. The process starts with attention which entails interest on the part of the observer. After significant amount of attention is paid to the stimulus, retention ensues. This implies that the learner encodes observed information in his memory. Reproduction then happens when the observed behaviour gets replicated by the learner. Motivation comes into play when the observer experiences reinforcement after the reproduction. A learner may repeat the observed behaviour after a reward. Secondly, an individual’s mental condition is essential. Aside from external rewards, internal reinforcement enhances a person’s motivation to pay atten tion to the model. When one can feel and think satisfied as a result of observing, the social learning will be more successful. Thirdly, observational learning does not always lead to a change in behaviour. Novel knowledge can be earned without palpable alterations in one’s actions. â€Å"Social learning theory began as an attempt by Robert Sears and others to meld psychoanalytic and stimulus-response learning theory into a comprehensive explanation of human behaviour, drawing on the clinical richness of the former and the rigor of the latter† (Grusec, 1992, p.776). Though Bandura is most opulently related to this theory, it actually originated from Sears. The history dates back to the time of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis. In 1935, there was a major movement that sought to unify learning and psychoanalytic theories. This resulted to Sears’ focus on socialization as significant aspect of the research. Particularly, he found out that children were being a ffected by the milieu that he encounters day by day. Children adapt the values and attitudes that their parents portray. Bandura agreed with some assertions of Sears but went against some. â€Å"Bandura is clearly the intellectual heir of Sears, influenced by but also reacting against the tradition that Sears represented† (Grusec, 1992, p.776). Together, the two experts utilize learning concepts in explaining how humans develop socially. Sears was more of the

Weekly News from the Arab World Essay Example for Free

Weekly News from the Arab World Essay The Arab World is facing various issues this week regarding the situation of the countries within it as well as important matters that also affect the whole world. Based upon the leading newspapers and news Web site the Middle Eastern region is dealing with affairs in different realms, which are mainly about politics, economics, as well as peace and order. As such, these events should be given due attention and consideration because the situations in the Arab World do not only affect the Middle Eastern region but it also has implications upon the international community. Most countries in the Middle East are rich in petroleum products. The presence of this kind of natural resources in these countries is the primary backbone of their economies. They are also responsible in exporting a huge percentage of oil and petroleum products in the international market. Being the case, the supply of oil coming from the Arab World is very important in order to sustain the needs for this product in the whole world. However, based upon the recent reports in Amman, Jordan the leading refinery in the country is having difficulties in meeting the increasing demand for oil. The Jordan Petroleum Refinery Company (JPRC) said that gas station orders have already quadrupled as compared to the previous days when the oil prices are still high. The CEO of JPRC Ahmad Rifai said that the decrease in the price oil has been the primary reason the refinery received 898 orders to provide gas station with 18, 392 tones of various fuel products. Unlike, the orders before that only amounted to 311. Nevertheless, Rifai added that their company is working round-the-clock to attend to all the demands of the gas stations in time. Moreover, he also assured the public that the supply of the company is sufficient enough for the needs of the consumers (Hazaimeh, 2008). The matter of peace and order in the region is still a primary concern especially in the country of Iraq. This has been become more evident when the Iraqis held an anti-US rally this week. The supporters of the Shia cleric Moqtada Sadr staged a mass demonstration wherein they marched from the eastern suburb of Dasr City towards the country’s capital, Baghdad. This was there way of showing their disagreement and disappointment in the plans of extending the U. S. mandate in the country. There were about 50,000 protesters that chanted the slogans â€Å"Get out occupier! † The opposition of these militants is based from the United Nations mandate that U. S. -led coalition forces are finish by the end of the year (BBC, 2008). On the brighter side of things, Israel’s defense Minister Ehud Barak expressed the country’s leaders in considering the plan that was proposed by Saudi Arabia, which offers comprehensive peace among Israel and the Arab world. Barak said that it is just timely to pursue an overall peace deal because there is little progress in individual negotiations. The peace plan stipulates that Israel will be recognized by its Arab neighbors in exchange for the country’s withdrawal from the lands in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem as well as the Golan Heights captured in the 1967 Middle East war. Barak also said that he had a discussion with Tzipi Livni, the Kadima party’s leader wherein they are considering a response with regards to the peace plan. This is regarded as a good start in establishing a comprehensive regional peace (Aljazeera, 2008). The aforementioned events discuss the major current situations that are happening in the Arab world. These reported incidents show the challenges that the region is facing and the corresponding reasons behind it. Nevertheless, despite the problems that the Middle East is encountering there are still developments towards addressing these issues. The Arab world is not merely stagnant in its usual dilemmas because they are also moving forward towards the betterment of their respective countries and their region as a whole. References Aljazeera. (2008). Israel weighing Saudi peace deal. Retrieved October 19, 2008, from http://english. aljazeera. net/news/middleeast/2008/10/20081019234422358867. html. BBC. (2008). Iraqis stage mass anti-US rally. Retrieved October 19, 2008, from http://news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/middle_east/7677551. stm. Hazaimeh, H. (2008). Refinery struggles to meet soaring demand on fuel after prices lowered. The Jordan Times. Retrieved October 19, 2008, from http://www. jordantimes. com/? news=11457.

Midsummer Nights Dream by William Shakespeare :: Papers

Midsummer Nights Dream by William Shakespeare Works Cited Missing Many miraculous events happen in Shakespeare's, "A Midsummer Night's Dream." Magic is an extensive part of the play, as well as, the incredible characters, including: Puck, Lysander, Hermia, Helena, Bottom, and many more. A numerous amount of the characters play more than one important part, to progress interest, in the play. But the most important event in the play is that love and betrayal are the two most crucial elements in the development of the play. One of the characters, Lysander, loves Hermia. They are deeply in love with each other and they care about one another very much. Lysander says, "I will my Hermia" (1.1.227). What he means by this is that he will do anything for her, and by justifying my, he is saying that they are together, and Hermia is his one true love. "Content with Hermia! No; I do repent the tedious minutes I with her have I spent. Not Hermia but Helena I love" (2.2.111-113). Lysander betrays his love for Hermia by getting a magical spell in his eyes to make him love Helena. But he does not get this magic done to him just once, but twice. So, he falls back in love with Hermia, and he stays with her for the rest of eternity. Another one of the characters, Demetrius, loves Hermia, just as Lysander does. Demetrius says, "And here am I, and wood within this

Educating Indian Peasants Essay

India is one country that is endowed with a rich culture that not only influences individuals but also social groupings and structures. Religion is one cultural aspect that is very influential and this paper seeks to shed light on its role in education as well as the forms of educational systems in India. The two basics forms of education are traditional education and elementary education. Traditional education can be defined as the passing of knowledge from a guru or spiritual leader to a student. The transmission of knowledge here is oral such that writing materials are not present. The venue in which this is done is known as a gurukul, which was usually the residential place of the leader or sage, and among the subjects taught were religion, Philosophy and mathematics. (Pomelil). This form of education was only accessible to certain castes that were higher that others. These castes were religious in nature where there also existed the untouchables who were mostly poor and oppressed by those of the higher castes. Traditional education was usually free but it is said that rich families gave tokens of appreciation to the gurus on completion of the studies. Discrimination and segregation are some of the characteristics that can be pegged on this education system. Religion comes in where it consoles those in the lower castes that after their death thy will re-incarnate to one of the high castes. Krishna, an Indian god is said to have reincarnated and gone through traditional education in his childhood. Robert,2003). Elementary education on the other is all inclusive and is carried out in schools. Castes do not have any importance because every one is given an equal opportunity to learn. In India those in lower castes were known as dalits and they were the main source of labor to those in higher castes. Elementary education was introduced so as to promote equal accessibility as well as universality to for everyone. Without elementary education the Indian peasants will only be revolving around the vicious cycle of poverty because of lack of empowerment that would enable them improve the standards of their own living. According to Robert, 2003, dalits were viewed and made to believe that they were not better than those in the higher castes but studies show that when dalits got into a competition with higher caste members, dalits only performed badly when their status was made obvious before the competition, while they even did better or scored same points when their social affiliation was not mentioned. Schools are available to all because they are not usually very far apart. Elementary education is the only way to empowering Indian peasants or Dalits because the World is rapidly changing and individuals are now rewarded by merit. Ascribed status is losing its popularity to a status that has been worked for or earned.

Crime Scene Essay

In an organized step by step approach â€Å"Scene Documentation† is one of the stages in the proper processing of a crime scene. The final results of a properly documented crime scene are the ability of others to take the finished product to use in either reconstructing the scene or the chain of events in an incident and our court room presentation. In documenting the scene there are actually three functions or methods used to properly document the crime scene. Those methods consist of written notes which will ultimately be used in constructing a final report, crime scene photographs, and a diagram or sketch. Consistency between each of these functions is paramount. Each method is important in the process of properly documenting the crime scene. The notes and reports should be done in a chronological order and should include no opinions, no analysis, or any conclusions; just the facts. The crime scene investigator or evidence recovery technician should document what they see, not what they think. The final report should tell a descriptive and factual story. A general description of the crime scene should be given just as the investigator sees it when she does the initial walk through of the scene. Each department or agency has a method which they use will for written documentation of the crime scene. There investigator or technician should follow her departments assigned procedures for written documentation. The importance of sharing information can never be over-looked. This article is intended to share ideas in the area of uniform documentation as an example of the format that is used by my department. We use a narrative section of the report divided it into five categories. The categories are the summary, the scene including a detailed body description if in a death investigation, processing, and evidence collected, and the pending that may be collected at another date or time. The summary would to basically give the details of how he was initiated into the investigation. For an example: â€Å"At the request of Robbery Detective H. Granier, this writer was requested to respond to assist in processing the scene of an armed robbery involving 4 unknown masked subjects. Detective H. Granier’s preliminary investigation revealed that the subjects startled the victim as she returned home from shopping†. For further details of this investigation refer to Detective H. Granier. Our summary is brief and does not include a lot of the said information  (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/unavailable/) The investigator in charge should obtain the following for the crime scene case file: 1. Initial responding officer documentation. 2. Emergency medical personnel documents. 3. Entry and exit documentation. 4. Photographs and any videos. 5. Crime scene sketches and diagrams. 6. Evidence documentation. 7. Other responders’ documentation. 8. Record of consent form or search warrant. 9. Criminal background check Reports such as forensic or technical reports should be added to this file when they become available. This will ensure that reports and other documentation pertaining to the crime scene investigation are compiled into a case file by the investigator in charge of the crime scene and allow for independent review of the work conducted. In the scene section of the narrative we should give a detailed description of the scene as it is seen when we approach the area. The scene description usually includes anything that is unusual and out of place. Any weather or environment conditions are also included. Again this is a description of what we see, not what we think. The evidence that should observe is: its location, the condition, or anything about the item will be included in our scene description section. This would also correspond to any identification markers used to number or label the items of evidence. These remarks would all be consistent with any numbers, letters, or labels indicated in the photographs, or drawn into a sketch of the scene (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/unavailable/). The processing section is for our units to describe what we did, if assistance was needed during the processing stages, who we had assisting, and what functions they did. The evidence collection section is to organize what evidence we and others assisting were able to recover from the crime scene, where the items were recovered from, and what part of the lab the items were  directed to for analysis. Criminal History A Criminal History Summary often referred to as a criminal history record or a â€Å"rap sheet† is a listing of certain information taken from fingerprint submissions retained by the FBI in connection with arrests and, in some instances, federal employment, naturalization, or military service. If no Criminal History Summary on file, the investigator will receive a response indicating that the person has no prior arrest data on file. If the person does have a criminal history Summary on file, you will receive your summary†. Pending Section The pending section would be for any known tasks that would need to be completed at a later date or time in the investigation. What is turned in to the Department? 1. A written report 2. Crime scene photographs 3. Crime scene sketch Crime Scene Example Final Report: Initial Information: Victim Name: Incident Address: Incident Date: Incident Time: Offense Report Date: Victim Information: Victim Name: Victim Address: Height: Weight: Eye Color: Hair Color: Scars: Tattoos: Other: NCIC #: Medical Examiner/Medical Summary: Medical Examiner/Agency: Injuries: Cause of Death: Manner of Death: Crime Scene Summary: Write a narrative about the crime scene. This is a summary of what you observed at the scene. You do not make hypothesis or draw conclusions. Evidence Log Summary: Evidence Number: Description Note: Attach Completed Evidence Collection Log to the end of this report. Image Inventory: Image Number Description Conclusions: Draw conclusions based on the evidence gathered. Be as complete as possible. Note: This list is limited to crime scene documentation. This should not be considered a comprehensive list of the documents involved in an investigative case file In conclusion, the final results of a properly documented crime scene are the ability of others to take the finished product to use in either reconstructing the scene or the chain of events in an incident and our court room presentation.

9 Should You Take It

What Is PSAT 8/9 Should You Take It SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The College Board now offers the PSAT 8/9 to eighth graders and high school freshmen as the first hurdle in the group of tests they call the "SAT Suite of Assessments." The PSAT 8/9 is a precursor to the PSAT 10, the PSAT/NMSQT and the SAT. But when is the PSAT 8/9 offered? And should you even bother taking it? In this article I'll give you all the details! What Is the PSAT 8/9? The PSAT 8/9 is the first exam in the College Board's "SAT Suite of Assessments" and is offered to eighth and ninth graders. The purpose of the PSAT 8/9 is to establish a starting point in terms of college and career readiness as students transition to high school. It's a way for students to practice for the PSAT 10, the PSAT/NMSQT, and the SAT. The test is offered between the fall and spring. Schools choose the dates on an individual basis, unlike the SAT, which is administered at designated test on dates determined by the College Board. Your school may offer the PSAT 8/9 between September 23rd 2019 and March 27th 2020 or between April 14th and 30th 2020. To sign up for the test, you will have to go through your school counselor. It costs $12 to order the materials, but some schools will cover this fee for you. Accommodations can also be made for students with disabilities. You don't need College Board approval to get accommodations for the PSAT 8/9, but test coordinators at your school must order any special materials before the ordering deadline. What's on the PSAT 8/9, and How Is It Scored? The PSAT 8/9, like the PSAT 10, PSAT/NMSQT and SAT, has three testing areas: Reading, Writing and Language, and Math. The Reading and Writing subject areas are combined for an Evidence-Based Reading and Writing section score. Math has its own separate section score. On the PSAT 8/9, you will get a total score between 240 and 1440, which is the sum of the two section scores in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing and Math that each range from 120 to 720. You'll also get three test scores for Reading, Writing, and Math that each range from 6-36. In addition to regular section scores, you'll be given Cross-Test scores which analyze questions across the three subject areas and separate them into a score for Analysis in History/Social Studies and a score for Analysis in Science. Each of these scores ranges from 6-36 as well. The subject areas are broken down into six additional subscores measured on a scale of 1-15. WHEW that's a lot of scores! It might be hard to make sense of all of them at first, but the purpose of having so many different scores is to show you specifically where you might need improvement. Along with scores, you'll get percentiles to help you discover how your scores compare to other students'. Your score percentile provides the percentage of students that score at or below your level. This can help you figure out whether you're on the right track for getting a high score on the PSAT 10, PSAT/NMSQT and SAT. Since the SAT is scored out of 1600, your scores on the PSAT 8/9 will be easily comparable to real SAT scores. The PSAT 8/9 is a way to practice for the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT so that you will be used to the test format and end up with high enough scores to possibly qualify for a National Merit Scholarship. It's just a practice Practice SAT! Studying for the SAT and learning how to yoyo are surprisingly similar How Does the PSAT 8/9 Differ From the PSAT 10 and the PSAT/NMSQT? Although all the PSAT exams share similarities, there are key ways the PSAT 8/9 differs from the other exams. Test Structure Differences The PSAT 8/9 is slightly different from the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT in length and scoring. The PSAT 8/9, as stated in the previous section, records scores on a scale of 240 to 1440. Scores on the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT range from 320 to 1520. Part of the reason for this difference in scoring is that the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT are longer than the PSAT 8/9 and have more questions. Take a look at the chart below comparing the PSAT 8/9 (highlighted in yellow), PSAT 10, and PSAT/NMSQT side by side. PSAT 8/9 PSAT 10 PSAT/NMSQT What is the range of possible scores? 240-1440 320-1520 320-1520 How long is it? 2 hrs25 min. 2 hrs45 min. 2 hrs 45 min. # of Reading Qs 42 47 47 # of Writing Qs 40 44 44 # of Math Qs 38 48 48 Can your score qualify you for a National Merit Scholarship? No No Yes The biggest difference between the PSAT 8/9 and the other two tests is in the number of Math questions: There are ten more questions on the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT than there are on the PSAT 8/9. The SAT has still more questions and is slightly longer than the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT- three hours, with an optional fifty-minute essay. There are 52 Reading questions, 44 Writing and Language questions, and 58 Math questions. Test Content Differences PSAT 8/9 Reading On the reading section of the PSAT 8/9, you won't have to make any complex inferences. You will mainly be expected to read passages and draw simple, one step conclusions that are spelled out in the text. On the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT, however, you'll have to make more difficult inferences that aren't as literal. For the PSAT 8/9 you will also be asked to identify relationships described in the passages based on straightforward information in the text. This is in contrast to the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT, where you will see questions about complex relationships that are based on more subtle information. Since the reading section on the real SAT includes a data interpretation component, the PSAT 8/9 will expect you to determine explicit meaning from graphs or text (read something off of a graph). You won't have to worry about recognizing data trends yet. That starts on the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT. Overall, the passages won't be quite as long, and the questions will be more literal and less complicated. PSAT 8/9 Writing and Language On the Writing section of the PSAT 8/9, you'll see questions about punctuation usage in simple contexts. This means you should have knowledge of basic rules like how to use commas to separate a list. On the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT you will be asked to use punctuation in more complex ways (things like semicolons to separate clauses or colons to introduce lists). For the PSAT 8/9, you will edit straightforward sentences that might contain one grammatical challenge like an introductory phrase. On the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT you will be faced with compound complex sentences where errors might be less clear. Like the Reading section, the Writing and Language section will also incorporate graphics, which will be fairly basic for the PSAT 8/9 but become more complex on the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT. PSAT 8/9 Math On the Math section of the PSAT 8/9, problems usually require one or two steps to solve, whereas math problems on the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT may have two or more steps. You'll see ratios, percents, proportions, introductory probability, and statistics on the PSAT 8/9, but you won't see the comparisons between linear and exponential growth that show up on the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT. Trigonometry-wise, you'll want to know the properties of right triangles, but you won't need to know trigonometric ratios yet. Those are only tested on the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT. Want to get a head start on the PSAT NMQST? We have the industry's leading PSAT prep program. Built by Harvard grads and SAT full scorers, the program learns your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics, then customizes your prep program to you so that you get the most effective prep possible. Check out our 5-day free trial today: Why Should You Take the PSAT 8/9? The point of the PSAT 8/9 is to provide insight into the subject areas where you need to make the most score improvements before you take the PSAT and ultimately the SAT. Although a few schools may use the PSAT 8/9 as a placement test, for most students the exam has no stakes- it's just a way to see how you're doing without any consequences if you end up bombing it. If you're really set on getting a great score on the PSAT/NMSQT, it might be a good idea to take the PSAT 8/9. Since the PSAT/NMSQT is only offered once a year in October, you will only have two chances maximum to take it (one in 10th grade and one in th grade). If you want to win a National Merit Scholarship, you have to do really well on one of those two tests. The best way to know which areas you need to work on is to take the PSAT 8/9. Based on your PSAT 8/9 scores, you will get personalized SAT study materials through Khan Academy. If you're not set on winning a scholarship, you probably don't need to take the PSAT 8/9. Just plan on taking the PSAT/NMSQT so that you can get an idea of where you are score-wise before the real SAT and where you need to improve. You can also take the PSAT 10 your Sophomore year to prepare for the PSAT/NMSQT. PSAT 10 scores, like PSAT 8/9 scores, aren't considered as a factor in the National Merit Scholarship competition, but they can give you more information about what areas you need to work on. A very prestigious Scholar Ship How Can You Prepare for the PSAT 8/9? Because the PSAT 8/9 is just a way to see how prepared you are for the PSAT 10, which is a way to practice for the PSAT/NMSQT which itself is a way to prepare for the SAT, most students don't need to prepare for the PSAT 8/9. Just taking the test and reviewing your scores is enough to give you an idea of how well you're doing and which areas you might want to consider focusing on later on when you prepare for the other exams. However, if you do want to study for the PSAT 8/9, there are resources. There are no official practice PSAT 8/9 tests, but the College Board's PSAT 8/9 Student Guide has a handful of practice questions for each section of the test. There are some unofficial practice PSAT 8/9 exams available, but we don't recommend them since they typically don't recreate test questions very accurately. Instead, we recommend using official study resources and practice tests for the PSAT/NMSQT. The formats of the two exams are very similar, but you won't see the most difficult questions from the PSAT/NMSQT on the PSAT 8/9, since the latter is meant for younger students. There are two official PSAT practice tests available: Official PSAT Practice Test 1- Score Your Test- Answer Explanations Official PSAT Practice Test 2- Score Your Test- Answer Explanations The Bottom Line The PSAT 8/9 is the first step on the path to the SAT. You can take it in 8th or 9th grade, and it's somewhat similar to the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT. The main differences are that there is no scholarship associated with it, it's shorter, and it has a lower score range. The PSAT 8/9 is essentially just another way to practice for the PSAT/NMSQT and the SAT. If you're really invested in figuring out where you need to improve your scores in order to do well enough on the PSAT/NMSQT to win a National Merit Scholarship, the PSAT 8/9 is a useful low-stakes assessment tool. Otherwise, just wait and take the PSAT/NMSQT your sophomore or junior year before you take the SAT, or take the PSAT 10 your sophomore year and the PSAT/NMSQT your junior year. What's Next? Are you wondering whether you should take the PSAT 10 or the PSAT/NMSQT? Read this article to find out what's best for you. Looking to practice your skills and see where you need to improve? Here are some PSAT practice tests to get your studying started. Learn more here about how PSAT scores translate into SAT scores and whether one reliably predicts the other. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Governments of Ancient Greece essays

Governments of Ancient Greece essays There were three main governments in Ancient Greece, oligarchy, tyranny, and democracy. The most succesful for the Greeks was democracy. Tyranny and oligarchy were both used and were succesful to an extent but not nearly as succesful as democracy. Tyranny came about because of trade and industry which created several wealthy individuals. These individuals seized power because they were forced by the aristocracy. These people who took the power were called tyrants which is where the word tyranny comes from. Tyranny was favored by both peasants and the wealthy because they were tired of the aristocracy dominating their city-state. The power of the tyrants was kept by hiring soldiers and once the tyrants gained their power they began to build marketplaces, temples, and walls in their city-state. The things they built gained the popularity of the tyrants which led to somewhat of a spread in tyranny but this kind of government finally came to an end by the end of the sixth century due to Greeks believing in the rule of law. After tyrants had fallen, government moved in two directions, democracy and oligarchy. Sparta, a powerful Greek city-state, was an example of a powerful and very well known oligarchy. Oligarchy meant rule by few. The Spartan Government was headed by two kings. These leaders headed their Spartan army in its campaigns. Every year, the Spartans elected five mean referred to as the ephors. The ephors were responsible for the education of the youth and the conduct of all citizens. To vote on issues not covered by the ephors, a council of two kings and sixty elders was made. The Spartans decided to turn their backs to the ouside world in order to secure their state. The Spartans were not allowed to travel anywhere unless for military reasons. Foreigners who had ideas were turned away. This security plan led to Spartans not being able to study philosophy, literature, or th ...